Public Diplomacy and its Impact on Foreign Policies

Introduction Public diplomacy entails the impact of public attitudes on the compilation and implementation of foreign policies. Public diplomacy includes the execution of public opinion by a government to a foreign country. Public diplomacy can also be viewed as the process of communicating foreign affairs and its influence on policy as well as the system of inter-cultural interactions (Melissen, Lee, Sharp, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Public Diplomacy and its Impact on Foreign Policies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This report will first offer a brief background detail on the U.S. public diplomacy, its legal underpinnings, and the evolution of the current U.S. public diplomacy. Public diplomacy will be viewed as a fundamental tool for facilitating security, liberty, and economic sustainability across the globe. This paper will look at the events that ensued after the September 11, 2001 te rrorist’s attacks, to show how the United States public diplomacy has changed to mitigate further threats to the U.S. security. This paper will also examine the application of hard power and soft power, according to the U.S. public diplomacy. Background This section offers an analysis of various platforms that the U.S. government initiated to promote its public diplomacy across the world. In this case, public diplomacy will be defined as the advancement of the U.S. interests, culture, and ideologies via sensitizing and manipulating foreign populations. The U.S. government, under the leadership of President Woodrow Wilson reckoned its application of public diplomacy practices in the wake of the 20th Century (Nye, 2005). This legislative platform explains the historical context of the U.S. citizen-oriented public diplomacy as it evolved since World War I. The current organization of the U.S. public policy can be linked to the following legal foundations. The United States Infor mation and Educational Exchange Act of 1948, the State Department Basic Authorities Act of 1956, the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961, the U.S. International Broadcasting Act of 1994. The U.S. Information and Education Exchange Act was designed after the World War II to serve as a platform for peacemaking programs outside the U.S. by using education services. The primary purpose of this Act was to bring forth the mutual understanding between the citizens of the U.S. and other people across the world. This Act provides the office of the Secretary of the state with authority to formulate and spread information concerning the people of the U.S., their policies, and values via the media and lecturers working abroad. The State Department Basic Authorities Act of 1956 gave the Secretary of the State the mandate to design and implement public diplomacy guidelines. This Act requires the Secretary to collaborate with both public and private organizations to promote dissem ination of information regarding the United States public policy.Advertising Looking for research paper on diplomacy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Mutual and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961 was formulated to maximize tolerance between the citizens of the U.S. and other people across the world via educational and cultural exchanges. The Act also sought to facilitate global cooperation for cultural and educational development. Consequently, this would help in the growth of friendly and peaceful interrelations between the U.S. and the international community. The United States International Broadcasting Act of 1994 serves the purpose of enlightening the international community about the U.S. concerning promotion of integration, peace, and democracy (Nye, 2011). This Act ensures a concise projection of the U.S. opinion and institutions, manifesting the U.S. cultural values and beliefs. This Act was employed after the 9/11 att acks to introduce the Voice of America broadcasts in Afghanistan. These four legislative Acts form the foundations of the U.S. public policy defining how the U.S. relates with the world today. Statement of the problem Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, an international debate escalated concerning the U.S. public diplomacy. Most public policy reforms in the U.S. have been created because of necessity rather than out of goodwill to promote international peace and security. Due to the increasing attacks on the U.S., and its allies across the globe, a consensus is growing that the U.S. public diplomacy needs to be revisited to create new policy directives and systems. New policies need to be developed to show why the U.S. is engaging the war against terrorism and why facilitating it is in the interests of the international community. Since terrorism has now grown to be an imminent threat to U.S. security, it is now in the national interest that American government has to devise and implement its public diplomacy in a manner that it attracts substantial support from the foreign countries. Thus, more importantly, the U.S. requires to improve the foreign policies not necessarily to increase its popularity in the international community, but because it has become a necessity in combating the state of insecurity facing its borders. A more elaborate approach and modernized structure are needed to initiate a firm standing of public diplomacy in the U.S. international policy. To address these issues, the U.S. government needs critical reforms that will trigger strategic planning and collaboration among all involved entities. Therefore, this report will emphasize the burgeoning discussions about public diplomacy between the U.S. and the Islamic states.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Public Diplomacy and its Impact on Foreign Policies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Despite th e essence attached to soft power as a tool for developing public diplomacy, most people have termed its application by the U.S. as an instrument for persuasion towards achieving self-interests (Atkinson, 2010). Therefore, this study will evaluate the concept of soft power and show how it can help nurture admirable public diplomacy. If used for selfish agendas, this paper will show that soft power has the potential to cause long-term conflicts between states. For instance, the case of the ongoing conflicts between the U.S. and some countries in the Islam society such as Iraq and Afghanistan indicates failed approaches of soft power and the resultant response using hard power. Nevertheless, soft power strategies will be viewed as a modern approach that the U.S. can employ to bolster its public diplomacy across the world. The 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks More than a decade past the attacks, the events that ensued that day hold in Americans minds. The large part of the U.S. popul ation still holds the perception that the anti-terrorism policies that were put in place after the attacks indicate that the U.S. poor policies before 9/11 might have fueled the attacks. The U.S. involvement in activities against terrorism facilitated change in attitudes and demands regarding safety and surveillance. This event introduced a new bunch of policies such as the USA Patriot Act that emphasized national safety at the peril of civil democracies. These changes made a huge impact on the international community, most notably in the Muslim nations in the Middle East. The U.S. public diplomacy was seen, as a factor contributing to the changing attitudes of other nations towards the U.S. (Osgood Etheridge, 2010). Anti-Americanism became a common belief among many people, thus affecting the U.S. image abroad. Consequently, various major rapid transformations were put in place to address this issue. Response The 9/11 attacks served as an awakening call to the Bush administration. The Bush administration awakened and introduced many initiatives that sought to rebrand the U.S. from an international bully to a compassionate partner. To reach the ordinary population of Muslims living in the U.S. and the citizens of the Middle East nations, public diplomacy is viewed as a fundamental tool to steer the U.S.’ soft power approach. Currently, thousands of ordinary people, particularly from the Muslim communities, are yet to see the U.S. as a compassionate hegemony, but rather they view it as a hostile and bully nation. This negative perception has led to the development of a young generation of extremists willing to retaliate towards the U.S. through terror threats.Advertising Looking for research paper on diplomacy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this light, the U.S. public policy towards Muslim fraternity is rooted in the perception that these negative connotations must be combated and replaced by genuine efforts of public diplomacy (Zaharna, 2014). However, the approach to neutralizing terror and extremism activities matters a lot since the U.S. has competing interests in promoting its image as an epitome of global peace and ensuring safety for its nation. From the onset of the terrorist attacks of 9/11, the Bush administration had to raise its recognition for public diplomacy to win support in the war on terror. Initially, the U.S. public diplomacy aimed at harnessing support on the war against Iraq, arguing that this fight was inevitable. For a long time after the attacks, public reaction remained mixed (Richmond, 2008). Leaders from the Islamic militant groups condemned the U.S. for its bullying practices against the weak states in the world. Similarly, many people across the world expressed their concerns that the a ttacks were retaliation against the U.S. political and cultural interference in the Middle East and international affairs. Most Islamic communities condemned the U.S. for being an enemy of peace in the Middle East, and some went ahead to celebrate the attacks. However, people across the globe, even those who believed the U.S. contributed to the attacks still expressed concerns and disappointment for the killing of innocent lives. Barely a week after the attacks, the ambassadors of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) declared that the attacks on any of its members were an attack on all the members of NATO. Even though NATO did not allow military retaliation, this statement reflected the U.S. public diplomacy and its support from other quarters. Similarly, immediately after the attacks, the United Nations Security Council urged all countries to triple their efforts towards curbing terrorist threats. It also encouraged all States to combat the financing of terrorism and parti cipate in all anti-terrorism activities. In other words, these utterances by independent bodies were a clear reflection of the fight the U.S. had always campaigned to gain support. These events manifested an opportunity for the U.S. to sell its public diplomacy to the world on its campaign against terrorist’s heinous activities. However, these expressions of support and oneness did not indicate that other nations offered the U.S. the green light to respond as they wish or to any target. Just as it is inscribed in the U.S. foreign policies declarations, the U.S. allies and rivals expressed similar concerns for the U.S. to take caution and avoid biased retaliation that could threaten alienation of Muslims around the globe. As an act of solidarity and in support of the American fight on extremism and terrorism, more than 30 states authorized military support to the U.S. and continued cooperation. Eventually, most leaders across the globe came to terms with George Bush’s a rgument that the war on terrorism was a global endeavor. In this light, it can be argued that the world was eventually coming into terms to aid America to eradicate anti-American sentiments. In response to the issue of border porosity, the U.S. government then led by President George W. Bush made advancements on the policies regarding immigration and deportation. The Bush administration developed the Department of Homeland Security in 2002 to oversee the merging of government agencies concerned with immigration and registration services. This aspect led to the formation of the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. Since its inception, ICE has led a tremendous rise in deportations. Even though the deportations were meant to improving the border security, this policy was met with huge criticism from the Middle East countries. Anti-American attitudes and its policies are hugely protested against among the Middle East countries. Following the advent of the attacks, several travel po licies changed dramatically. The airport rules, security, and procedures experienced significant overhauls. The security services were transferred to the Transportation Security Administration to formulate new security guidelines as well as to conduct screening at all commercial airport checkpoints in the U.S. Even though these procedures improved air travel safety, they breached on privacy rights. In various instances, these new rules heightened scrutiny of minority groups. For example, travelers with a Middle East descent felt and believed they were prime targets of these new policies. Moreover, many people did not share the belief that the U.S. missions abroad were credible. What does the example demonstrate? While the 9/11 attacks attracted unimaginable global support for the U.S., they also brought to light that a huge number of people combine efforts against the U.S. missions abroad. Before the 9/11 attacks, the Congress and several administrators undermined the essence of fun ding public diplomacy practices across the world. Public diplomacy was seen as less critical compared to other government activities such as military functions. This diminished belief in the essence of public diplomacy was further crippled by sentiments from Muslim communities that the U.S. misused public diplomacy to avoid issuing honest explanations on its agenda in foreign countries. The deteriorating support for the US-orchestrated fight against extremism hugely compromises the significance of its public diplomacy. However, U.S. should consider diverse opinions, political ideologies, values, and cultural beliefs of other nations when designing and spreading its public policies. This approach is better placed towards making the U.S. actions better acknowledged and more effective in the international community. The mixed reactions expressed by the public following the attacks symbolize that the U.S. might have missed the point in the process of selling its public diplomacy across the globe. Some people felt that the U.S. cultural hegemony and values were meant to Americanize the world. This feeling of Americanization is highly seen as a way of disrespect to cultures of the weak states and a target to the Islam community. Even though the education and cultural exchange programs were meant to nurture a better understanding of the U.S. to the international community, the whole process is seen to ignore the values of other cultures. The U.S. tends to perceive its culture as standard and seeks to market its beliefs with no regards for other nation’s culture. The lack of mutual understanding is what causes retaliation by states who feel that the U.S. is meddling in their internal affairs for its malicious benefits. Additionally, the events of 9/11 manifested that the concept of public diplomacy is interdependent in the sense that nations have to learn other nation’s policies and appreciate them to build trust. The U.S. is seen to have overlooked the concept of interdependence in promoting its public diplomacy abroad. Besides, the promotion of public diplomacy in some cases is linked with unintended consequences. Some people who lead these programs abroad have met unforeseeable challenges such as responding to inaccurate stories and meddling of facts concerning the U.S. Lessons Learned The U.S., as well as the world, learned many things from the terrorist attacks of 9/11. One major lesson from this example is that America is vulnerable to terrorist activities. Before the events of 9/11, most Americans never imagined an attack on the American soil. Every American believed that the countries public diplomacy was sound enough to offer an acceptable representation of its values across the world. However, these events served as an awakening call and caught everyone unaware. Initially, Americans thought they had allies all over the world, and the few adversaries were not aggravated to the extent of retaliating with terror attacks. Unf ortunately, terrorism caught up with Americans, and it is increasingly evident that more adversaries are planning retaliation at the U.S. Second, even though hard power has worked in the past, the time has come for the U.S. to re-evaluate its stance on hard power and try other means such as soft power to minimize anti-Americanism. Soft power is more effective and flexible procedure in modern international relations because of its tolerance and sustainability. Contrary, hard power has deteriorated and has become less efficient today as the international system evolves through negotiations. To get others to do what one wants, in this case, the U.S. against the world, hard power has been viewed as a coercive tool and undesirable in the modern society. Following the attacks, those who felt that the U.S. was responsible for its misfortune argued that before the events, the U.S. had applied coercive diplomacy and economic sanctions to undermine cultures and political organizations of othe r nations. For instance, countries in the Middle East perceived these invasions as a threat to their independence and peace. Third, many U.S. policymakers realized the necessity of how its public diplomacy is perceived by other nations. Following the 9/11 attacks, a former Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy downplayed previous sentiments by a section of the Congress that money spends on public diplomacy could be redirected to other important affairs such as the military. The Under Secretary insisted that public diplomacy instruments are as crucial in the fight against terrorism as military instruments and they should be accorded similar recognition. Third, the tenets of soft power must not be used to serve malicious agendas. Soft power strategies have the capacity to engage or persuade other states or actors to do what one wishes. Persuasive power relies on intangible power avenues that include educational and cultural exchanges, ideology, and institutions. However, the M iddle East countries have always questioned the legitimacy of the U.S. use of soft power. The U.S. activities in the Middle East and most parts of the world have been seen as lacking legitimacy and focusing on advancing American interests at the expense of others. The U.S.’ use of persuasion is viewed as a tool to punish, compel, and attract support for the US-led agendas. This world’s view of the U.S. public diplomacy will further expose it to more adversaries and despite the preparedness, pressure for fresh attacks will continue to mount. Apparently, there is a widespread recognition that the increasingly negative public views concerning the U.S. might influence how supportive countries will respond in the fight on terrorism. The anti-American opinions create a flourishing environment for terrorist activities such as recruitment and funding. However, as America wishes to spread its influence abroad, it is necessary to abide by their traditions that require honesty an d credibility. Failure to act honestly will place the U.S. in a more risky position and threaten the safety of its citizens both locally and abroad. The events that befell the U.S. in 9/11 serve as an example of the uncertainty of public diplomacy consequences within other nations. Many countries have learned from this event that any nation is susceptible to retaliation by groups who fail to comprehend their public diplomacy abroad. Many countries have increased emphasis on credible public diplomacy and even encourage open criticism on issues that are deemed coercive or targeting certain communities (Fitzpatrick, 2009). Besides the bilateral relationships, many countries have engaged in international broadcasting to project their image and values abroad. For instance, immediately after the 9/11 attacks, the Voice of America launched its broadcasts to Afghanistan and within other Muslim societies. VOA targeted featuring a mix of events happening in both the U.S. and the host nation. The effectiveness of soft and hard power in nurturing public diplomacy Just before the terrorist attacks of 9/11, the U.S. public diplomacy on foreign issues had highly relied on soft power. Since the end of World Wars and the subsequent U.N. economic sanctions against Iraq in 1991 due to the first Gulf War, use of hard power declined. Nations started buying to the idea of soft power. The highly modernizing states expressed an increasing need to end the coercive retaliations and inducement of threats. To build a better picture of its values, the U.S. used the media, educational exchanges, sports, and envoys among other institutions to market its public diplomacy across the world (Sharp, 2009). Many commentators viewed this move as an alternative way of persuading other nations and actors to support the missions of the U.S. In this light, most nations felt cheated by the U.S. in the sense that it did not appreciate the underlying values of the cultures of other nations. Soft power ap proach turned out as a means of attraction and persuasion towards supporting the US-led ideologies. Failure to tolerate other people ideologies and beliefs triggered concerns over the legitimacy of the U.S. soft power approach. Following the events of 9/11, the U.S. sought to utilize hard power since its high national income and large armed forces enabled it to put terrorist-linked states such as Iraq under economic pressure. This move was geared towards suppressing funding for terror activities. Besides, the U.S. felt that it had no time to start negotiations and using hard power was relatively less time consuming and yielded results in a short time. However, this approach was not the best in addressing public diplomacy issues. Even though hard power tends to bring an immediate response, its effect is short-lived, but soft power has the potential to influence long-term change. Attraction and persuasions that are well-intentioned could have served as a better way to advance the U.S. image across the globe. The use of soft power has the potential to change one’s response since one act willingly but in a way, different to their normal behavior. Contrary, coercion and economic sanctions compel an actor to respond in an expected way but different to one’s normal behavior. Coercion results to further conflicts and negotiations to consensus. For example, the repressive measures employed by the U.S. against the Afghanistan since the 9/11 attacks have left Afghanistan in a series of civil wars and unrest worse than before the U.S. engagement (Golan, Yang, Kinsey, 2014). Comparing this case to the soft power tactics used to form the European Union that has resulted in decades of peace, it indicates the importance of persuasion in advancing public diplomacy in other nations. Furthermore, the tenets of the modern world order undermine the efficiency of hard power models. These characteristics include the spread of information technology, the spirit of nati onalism in most states, economic interdependence, and the triumph of democracy. For instance, in 2003, the U.S. invaded Iraq to neutralize the terrorist groups. The U.S. failed to understand the key principles of soft power. First, Bush administration undermined the U.S.’s dependence on their allies’ support and international public support. Second, the legitimacy of the action was not approved for its significance. This action failed and in the long term, the U.S. public diplomacy has been dented as the event undermined the U.S. international standing. Due to the many shortcomings degrading the efficiency of hard power, it is difficult to enhance the success of public diplomacy based on hard power strategies (Rugh, 2011). However, this does not guarantee that soft power resources are always successful in creating a better image for a state in the global stage. Some soft power resources are questionable and at other times, misinterpreted. For instance, the US Africa Co mmand is an example of bloated soft power models. The U.S. agenda in Africa mirrored three key aspects that included oil exploration, terrorist threats and the China’s escalating effect in Africa. AFRICOM ideas were shared as a soft power model, but African leaders, among other political spectators perceived the move as imperialist motives the U.S. intended to partake in Africa. AFRICOM agenda together with the recurrent Iraq invasions tampered with the U.S. soft power intentions. Nonetheless, such unsuccessful soft power strategies are occasionally expected. Various events stand out to offer cases in which soft power resources have flourished in advancing public diplomacy for actors involved. The European Union has consistently depicted the potential of soft power strategies in ensuring peace and integration of different cultures. The attractiveness of E.U. participation promotes its image at the international level. The same image is reflected about its member states; thus, serving as a useful platform for selling off public diplomacy for individual states. Educational and cultural exchanges, as well as volunteering, are strategies of soft power that assists substantially to the safety and well-being of American citizens locally and overseas. Volunteering and training add to the organizational capacity building, respect for democracy and honor for human rights, all of which are principles that help shape the American image abroad. Therefore, such events promote mutual understanding and intercultural appreciation and thus minimizing chances of conflicts. For a long period in the history of the U.S., public diplomacy has been shaped by the activities it conducts abroad. The countries in the Middle East feel that they have been a target for misappropriation of soft power by the U.S. This notion is highly attributed to the continuing heated relationship between the U.S. and a section of the Islamic states. However, this is changing over time some states s uch as Cuba is coming to good terms with the U.S. over years of application of soft power strategies. Recently Cuba and the U.S. have re-established bilateral relationships giving a chance to both states to sell their public diplomacy. Another case of effective soft power strategy is the U.S. effort to bolster its influence in Africa by using various institutions that include the African Growth and Opportunity Act that seeks to promote bilateral trade agreements tied to defined socio-economic and political reforms. Second is the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, which is a global health initiative offering financial solutions to facilitate national reforms to prevent AIDS/HIV. The third approach is the Millennium Challenge Corporation formed on the basis the aid and grants are better utilized when they advance democracy, good governance, economic interdependence, and investments in people empowerment. These programs target to alleviate negative connotations held abo ut the U.S. imperialist interests in Africa and elsewhere. In the process, the U.S. is building its reputation, thus increasing its influence in global affairs through allies. The eligibility criteria for these programs are compelling and a strong persuasive instrument. The attractiveness of the U.S. humanitarian assistance in Africa and elsewhere in the world enhances world’s perception about the U.S. Conclusion Many people see the U.S. public diplomacy as a foreign public relations tool used to propagate its interests abroad. The public has expressed mixed reactions with some perceiving public diplomacy as a fundamental foreign policy tool while others disregard it as a government program full of uncertain long-term benefits. Following the 9/11 attacks, policymakers have called for a rise in public diplomacy support to win the attitudes and minds of anti-Americans and assist combat terrorism. However, all actors must recognize that public diplomacy is only effective if the message it bears is credible and legitimate. Current surveys continue to indicate that vast majority of world’s population view the U.S. activities abroad with skepticism. When the message fails to match with what it purports to convey, then public diplomacy is ineffective. Public diplomacy must now serve as a platform for negotiations aiming to achieve a better understanding of societies as well as create genuine interrelationships between countries. If dialogue cannot lead to long-term relationships between the U.S. and the rest of the world, it will be hard to build trust. Without trust, public diplomacy is ineffective and meaningless. The U.S. should increase funding for public diplomacy activities, particularly among the Muslim populations and clearly communicate what it stands for through exchanges, volunteering, and broadcasting overseas. Since the vast majority of Muslim population agree to what the U.S. advocates and do not subscribe to violence practices, the U.S. v ia public diplomacy must find means to draw a line between those who advocate for peace and those who use violence and terror as their way to air their grievances. Therefore, the U.S. can benefit if it employs public diplomacy more assertively to highlight its actions abroad legitimately. References Atkinson, C. (2010). Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs, 1980-2006. Foreign Policy Analysis,6(1), 1-22. Fitzpatrick, K. (2009). The Future of U.S. Public Diplomacy: An Uncertain Fate. Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff. Golan, G., Yang, S., Kinsey, D. (2014). International Public Relations and Public  Diplomacy: Communication and Engagement. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Melissen, J., Lee, D., Sharp, P. (2007). The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in  International Relations. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Nye, J. (2005). Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York, NY: Public Affairs. Nye, J. (2011). The Future of Power. New York, NY: Public Affairs. Osgood, K., Etheridge, B. (2010). The United States and Public Diplomacy: New  Directions in Cultural and International History. Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. Richmond, Y. (2008). Practicing Public diplomacy: A Cold War Odyssey. New York, NY: Berghahn Books. Rugh, W. (2011). The Practice of Public Diplomacy: Confronting Challenges Abroad.  New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Sharp, P. (2009). Diplomatic Theory of International Relations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Zaharna, R. (2014). Battles to Bridges: US Strategic Communication and Public  Diplomacy after 9/11. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. This research paper on Public Diplomacy and its Impact on Foreign Policies was written and submitted by user Qu1nt1n to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Introduction to Human Development Essay Example

Introduction to Human Development Essay Example Introduction to Human Development Essay Introduction to Human Development Essay INTRODUCTION â€Å"The human being†¦ the most sophisticated, amazing and wondrous creation in this earth. If one would take a peek at what’s inside his human body, he’ll be amazed to see hundreds of bones, miles of blood vessels and trillions of cells, all working together so he could be healthy and in perfect shape. Each organ, each body part, each a miracle†¦ Each a piece of evidence of God’s mighty providence. † This lesson familiarizes you with the principles and stages of human growth, maturation and development. It discusses how humans grow, develop, change and adapt to their environment throughout their life span. Warm-Up Did you know that there are 26 billion cells in a new born baby and about 50 trillion cells in an adult? Cells are responsible for supplying you with the energy you need, transporting oxygen around your body and moving your body parts. Indeed, every single cell in your body helps you maintain vitality and life. BASIC CONCEPTS 1. Human Development refers to the biological and psychological development of the human being throughout the lifespan. It consists of the development from infancy, childhood, and adolescence, adulthood to old age. . Development refers to the qualitative, progressive series of changes in an orderly and coherent fashion leading to maturation 3. Growth refers to quantitative changes in an individual as he progresses in chronological age. 4. Maturation is the process by which heredity exerts its influence long after birth. 5. Genetics is the science of heredity. It originated with the discovery by Gregor Mendel that hereditary characters are determined by f actors transmitted without change and in predictable fashion from one generation to the next. 6. Heredity is the passing on of physical or mental characteristics from parents to offspring through the genes. 7. Gene is a unit of heredity; a segment of the DNA which contains the instructions for the development of a particular inherited characteristic. There are about 30,000 genes that contain chemical instructions. The chemical instructions in the genes program the development of millions of individual parts into a complex body and brain. 8. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid which occurs in combination with protein in the chromosomes, which contains the genetic instructions. It consists of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine), a sugar (2-deoxy-D- ribose), and phosphoric acid, arranged in a regular structure- (two chains twisted round each other in the form of a double helix). 9. Nucleic acids are large molecules produced by living cells which store genetic information, and composed of a chain of nucleotides. Two forms are: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which is found primarily in the nucleus and ribonucleic acid (RNA), found in the nucleus and cytoplasm. 10. Chromosomes are threads within the nucleus of a cell which are the carriers of genetic material, consisting of DNA and various types of protein (histones). They occur in pairs a normal human body cell has 46 chromosomes: 22 pairs of autosomes together with one matching pair of X chromosomes in females (the 23rd pair- XX) and one mismatching pair, the X and Y sex chromosomes in males (the 23rd pair-XY) 11. Sex chromosome is the 23rd pair of chromosomes represented differently in the sexes, and responsible for the genetic determination of the sex of an individual. There are 1,000 genes in each chromosome. 12. Gamete is a specialized reproductive cell that fuses with another gamete of the opposite sex during fertilization, to form a zygote. Gametes are usually differentiated into male (sperm) and female (egg, ovum). 13. Sexual Reproduction is the act or process of producing offspring through sexual intercourse or artificial insemination. The Stages of Reproduction: 1. During ovulation period, females release and deposit sex chromosomes in the uterus. In the reproduction process, the male releases sperm cells that contain either X or Y chromosomes. The first male chromosome that meets and unites with the egg determines the gender of the offspring. If Y chromosome from the male first unites with the egg (which is an X chromosome), the offspring is male (XY). But if an X chromosome coming from the male first unites (XX), the gender of the offspring is female. 2. The successful sperm cell penetrates inside the ovum. The tail of the sperm separates to the head during this process. The nucleus of the sperm cell will then unite with the nucleus of the ovum and undergo a process called fertilization. The 23 chromosomes from the sperm cell will pair with the 23 chromosomes from the egg cell and the resulting zygote starts life with 46 chromosomes. . When the zygote is about to divide, chromosome replication and cell division arise wherein chromosomes and genes are doubled. All cells except the reproductive cells receive identical inheritance. The process of cell division continues with the chromosomes being always replicated as described. 4. Sometimes, instead of remaining together as parts of a single organism, the cells separate. Th ey develop to form identical twins. Siamese twins come from an incomplete separation of the two identical cells. 5. However, if two egg cells are fertilized separately, they develop to form fraternal twins. Chromosomal Abnormalities: 1. Turner’s syndrome- is a rare case wherein females may be born with only 1 X chromosome (45 chromosomes instead of 46). They fail to develop sexually at puberty. They show normal intelligence but with cognitive defects like poor performance in math and spatial organization. 2. Down’s Syndrome- a defect which usually stems from a failure of one chromosome of a germ cell to split in the normal way to form a healthy ovum with 23 chromosomes; an ovum with 24 chromosomes is produced, and if this ovum is fertilized, the developing embryo possesses an extra chromosome (47). The condition is named after English physician J L H Down (1828-96), and is sometimes referred to as mongolism. 3. Klinefelter’s Syndrome- a rare case wherein the 23rd chromosome fails to divide properly giving off extra X or Y chromosome (47). An individual with an xxy 23rd chromosome is physically a male but with feminine characteristics like large breasts but with small testes incapable of producing sperms. Male with XYY chromosomes are taller and unusually aggressive than the normal XY. Sex-Linked Genes 1. Sex-Linked Genes bare genes carried on the X and Y chromosomes, and the characteristics they control. In mammals females have two X chromosomes and males an X and a Y chromosome. Women transmit one X chromosome to either sons or daughters, while men pass their X chromosome only to their daughters. a. A characteristic feature of sex-linked inheritance is thus the absence of male-to-male transmission. Most sex-linked diseases in humans are inherited as recessives; with the males the affected sex (e. g. colorblindness, baldness, hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy). 2. Hemophilia is an inherited disorder of blood coagulation, resulting from a deficiency in one of the proteins responsible for normal blood clotting. STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT STAGESAGEHIGHLIGHTS 1. Prenatal Conception to birth Rapid physical development of body and nervous system 2. Infancy Birth to 2 years Motor development. Attachment to primary caregiver. 3. Childhood 2 to 12 years Increasing ability to think logically and reason abstractly. Refinement of motor skills. Peer socialization. 4. Adolescence 13 to 20 years Thinking and reasoning are more mature like. Identity crisis. Socializations to opposite sex. STAGESAGEHIGHLIGHTS 5. Adulthood 21 to 60 years Love, marriage, career and stability. . Old Age 61 to retirement Reflection of accomplishments. Physical and mental health deteriorates. A. Prenatal Stage 1. Prenatal Period- the period from conception to birth, usually encompassing nine months of pregnancy. 2. Pregnancy is a physiological process in which females nurture their developing young within the uterus; also known as gestation. It begins when the fertilized ovum embeds itself in the uterine wall (implantation), and ends with the birth of the offspring (parturition). It lasts on average 38 weeks (9 ? onths or 266 days) from the first day of the last menstrual period, menstruation is absent (in response to circulating hormones), the uterus enlarges, the breasts increase in size in preparation for lactation, and there are other major physiological changes. 3. Fertilization is the union of two gametes to form a zygote, as occurs during sexual reproduction. 4. Zygote a one-celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and egg cell. The zygote undergoes rapid mitotic divisions with no significant growth (a process known as cleavage) and cellular differentiation, leading to development of an embryo. . Cleavage is the process by which a fertilized egg cell (zygote) divides to give rise to all the cells of an organism. The prenatal stages 1. Germinal stage the first prenatal stage that occurs from first to second week of conception. 2. Embryonic stage the second prenatal stage that occurs fr om third to eighth week of conception. 3. Fetal stage the third and final prenatal stage that occurs from ninth week of conception to birth. STAGE AGE (week) SIZE CHARACTERISTICS GERMINAL STAGE or period of zygote (1 to 2 weeks) 1 week 150 cells Zygote attaches to the uterine lining. weeksSeveral thousand cellsPlacental circulation established EMBRYONIC STAGE or period of embryo (3 to 8 weeks)3 weeks1/10 inchMajor systems, organs, and structures of the body develop. 6 weeks? inchArms and legs develop. Jaws form around mouth. 8 weeks1 inch, 1/30 ounceBones begin to develop in limbs. Sex organs begin to form. FETAL STAGE or period of fetus (9 weeks to birth)9 (2. 5 mos. )1 ? inchFormation of brain; Gender can be distinguished. 12 (3 mos. )3 inches, 1 ounceCan smile and frown; Circulatory system working. 16 (4 mos. )6. 5 inches, 4 ounceHeartbeat is strong; Mother feels movement. 0 (5 mos. )10 inches, 5 ounceHiccups begin; hair form 24 (6 mos. )12 inches, 1. 5 lbsVisual and auditory se nses functional; eyes open. 28 (7 mos. )15 inches, 2. 5 lbsBody fat is added; brain specialization. 32 (8 mos. )17 inches, 2. 5 lbsPeriods of sleep and wakefulness. 36 (9 mos. )19 inches, 6 lbsRapid increase in weight; Gains immunity from mother. 38 (9 1/5)21 inches, 8 lbsBirth- 266 days from conception. B. INFANCY. 1. Infancy is the period of human development from birth to two years. 2. Neonate is a newborn child. 3. Capacities of a newborn: a. Newborns have poor vision and cannot see as well as an adult until about age 2. b. Newborns pay attention to sounds particularly to human speech. c. Infants can discriminate different tastes and prefer sweets like breast milk. d. Neonate can identify odors especially that of the mother. e. Infants can learn from the moment they are born and show good memories by 3 months of age. 4. Motor Development refers to the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities. Stages of Motor Development In Infancy AGE (months)ACTIVITIESAGE (months)ACTIVITIES Lifts head up 11 Stands alone 2. 5 Rolls over 12 Walks alone 3 Sits propped up 14 (1 yr, 2 mos) Walks backward 6 Sits without support 17 (1 yr, 5 mos) Walks up steps 6. 5 Stands holding on 20 (1 yr, 8 mos) Kicks ball forward 9 Walks holding on 10 Stands momentarily 5. Critical Periods are the crucial time periods in a person’s life during which specific events occur if development is to proceed normally. In fetus, t he 6 to 7 weeks is critical for normal development of the sex organs- like deficiency in hormones. Visual corrections are critical up to 7 years old. . Sensitive Periods are periods that are optimal for a particular kind of development. First year of life is a sensitive period for interpersonal attachment. 7. Temperament refers to such mood-related personality characteristics. a. Easy Temperament is a term used to describe a child who is playful, regular in his sleeping and eating patterns, and adapts readily to new situations. b. Difficult Temperament is a term used to describe a child who is irritable, has irregular sleeping and eating patterns, and responds intensely and negatively to new situations. c. Slow to warm up temperament is a term used to describe a child who is relatively inactive, tends to withdraw from new situations in a mild way, and requires more time than easy infants to new situations. 8. Attachment is used to describe an infant’s tendency to seek closeness to particular people (especially the mother) and to feel more secure in their presence. 9. Separation anxiety is a distress among infants when a caretaker is not nearby. 10. Sensitive Responsiveness is a characteristic of a caretaker who responds promptly when the baby cries and behaves affectionately when they pick up the baby. The caretaker also tailors their response to the baby’s needs. C. ADOLESCENCE 1. Adolescence refers to the period of transition from childhood to adulthood covering 13 to 20 years old. It is characterize by a rapid physical growth known as the adolescent growth spurt. 2. Puberty is a period of sexual maturation that transforms a child into a biologically mature adult capable of sexual reproduction, which takes place over a period of 3 or 4 years. a. It starts when a female has a menarche between the ages of 11 to 17 (average is 12) and when a male begin to ejaculate semen between the ages of 12 to 16 (average is 14 1/2). . Secondary sex characteristics like bodily hair patterns, pitch of voice and muscle development are evident for both males and females. c. Changes in the intellectual abilities, body proportions, and sexual urges (together with changing relationships with parents and peers) create enormous challenges. d. Psychological effects of puberty such as moodiness, inn er turmoil, and rebellion are linked directly to the hormonal changes of puberty. D. ADULTHOOD 1. Adulthood is a stage of human development from ages 21 to 60 that is marked by both maturity and change. . It involves transition in the family relationships, including adjusting to marriage parenthood and empty nest. 2. Age-related physical transitions include: changes in appearance; sensory losses (especially vision and hearing), and hormonal changes. Mental speed declines. a. Menopause is the cessation of menstruation that usually occurs between 45 and 50 years. It is often accompanied by physical (sweating, hot flushes, vaginitis) and psychogenic (depression, insomnia, fatigue) disturbances, which generally respond to estrogen therapy. . Mid-life Crisis is a difficult, turbulent period of doubts and reappraisal of one’s life. E. OLD AGE 1. Old age a stage of human development which covers those 65 years old and above. 2. Ageism is discrimination on the basis of age, often res ulting in the denial of rights and services in the elderly. a. Dementia- is a brain disorder that involves losses of cognitive abilities and mental functioning. b. Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative disorder whose progression cannot be stopped; it is irreversible and ultimately ends in death.

Learn What pH Stands For and How the Term Originated

Learn What pH Stands For and How the Term Originated Have you ever wondered what pH stands for or where the term originated? Here is the answer to the question and a look at the history of the pH scale. Key Takeaways: Origin of pH Term pH stands for power of hydrogen.The H is capitalized because it is the hydrogen element symbol.pH is a measure of how acidic or basic an aqueous solution is. It is calculated as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. pH Definition and Origin pH is the negative log of hydrogen ion concentration in a water-based solution. The term pH was first described by Danish biochemist Sà ¸ren Peter Lauritz Sà ¸rensen in 1909. pH is an abbreviation for power of hydrogen where p is short for the German word for power, potenz and H is the element symbol for hydrogen. The H is capitalized because it is standard to capitalize element symbols. The abbreviation also works in French, with pouvoir hydrogen translating as the power of hydrogen. Logarithmic Scale The pH scale is a logarithmic scale that usually runs from 1 to 14. Each whole pH value below 7 (the pH of pure water) is ten times more acidic than the higher value and each whole pH value above 7 is ten times less acidic than the one below it. For example, a pH of 3 is ten times more acidic than a pH of 4 and 100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than a pH value of 5. So, a strong acid may have a pH of 1-2, while a strong base may have a pH of 13-14. A pH near 7 is considered to be neutral. Equation for pH pH is the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration of an aqueous (water-based) solution: pH -log[H] log is the base 10 logarithm and [H] is hydrogen ion concentration in the units moles per liter Its important to keep in mind a solution must be aqueous to have a pH. You cannot, for example, calculation pH of vegetable oil or pure ethanol. What Is the pH of Stomach Acid? | Can You Have Negative pH? Sources Bates, Roger G.  (1973). Determination of pH: Theory and Practice. Wiley.Covington, A. K.; Bates, R. G.; Durst, R. A. (1985). Definitions of pH scales, standard reference values, measurement of pH, and related terminology (PDF). Pure Appl. Chem. 57 (3): 531–542. doi:10.1351/pac198557030531

The history of Elvis Presley's musical appearances on American Term Paper

The history of Elvis Presley's musical appearances on American Television - Term Paper Example The next appearance that Elvis made on television was on the show The Steve Allen Show. While in the show Allen mocked the appearance made by getting dressed in a tuxedo which removed the usual physical gyrations. In the show, he sang Hound dog to a basset Hound. In the show he mainly talked about the song that had received much critic. Ed Sullivan had once said he would never have the controversial singer on his top-rated show, but that was earlier the week that Elvis entrance on Steve Allen had exceeded Sullivans evaluations. After coming into agreement with Elvis manager, Ed Sullivan rewarded Elvis the huge sum of $50,000 for performing on three of his show. The shows that he appeared in were in September 9 1956 and in January 6, 1957. The importance that he gained from attending the shows was the huge money that he was paid. In the time, the amount was huge as there is no performer that had ever been paid such amount to appear on a network variety program. The appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show was a major success as there was increased watching of the show. Then show was watched by both the young and the old. There was belief by the people that the appearance that he made on the show was of another great importance as there was bridging in the generation gap for acceptance of Elvis into the mainstream. While in the show, he performed several songs including Love Me Tender, Don’t Be Cruel, Hound Dog and Ready Teddy. When he made the third appearance on the show in Ed Sullivan in January 1957 there was surprise to him as he was told that he had developed a better experience with a name act. Sullivan in the show reported to the co untry and Elvis that the singer was a real decent boy. In the appearance it was historical as he was only shown on camera from the waist up. The next appearance that Elvis made on TV was in 1960 when he was given an opportunity by Frank

Technical trading analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Technical trading analysis - Essay Example s assumed that the fund would definitely be interested in riding a wave but not to the peak but obtain gains much before the peak and go short somewhere between the bottom and the peak. Similarly the fund would not wait for the market to bottom out before taking a decision on going long and that it would go long once market moves down somewhere between the peak and the bottom. Either strategies would imply that the fund is not looking for excessive and speculative gains; nevertheless it does maintain inherent profit booking targets. The trading system explained below is based on trading rules that were tested for profits results based on this risk philosophy. Financial theory, taught in finance textbooks the globe over, normally exposes a student of finance to the concepts like the efficient market hypothesis and the economically rational individual. Bubbles and crashes seem to defy these two seminal concepts with an awkwardness equivalent to the awkwardness one would attach to those things on earth that defy gravity. Nevertheless such extreme stock market movements are a reality. Bubbles make investing decisions arduous as stock prices tend to deviate by substantial margins from their fundamental valuations. Investors relying on past company results and technical analysis are equally defeated in such situations as is the EMH.In fact, investors always act on the basis that they have an applicable construct to explain stock price movements and tend to input all available information collected under such constructs in their investment decisions (Poole 2000). Finance research has also held varying opinions on this issue. For instance, Bierm ann (1995) supports the idea that market prices are determined from backward looking investors than by those that indulge in predictions of all sorts. Others have, for example elaborated on the use of price to earnings ratios to determine excess market valuations. Some technical work has set to rest in a convincing manner the

My Online Community Essay -- Essays Papers

My Online Community I aimlessly wondered the Internet trying to find a community suitable for me. I wasn’t sure what I was looking for. I have many interests, but I really don’t have a strong passion for something. So I decided to join a community in which I could express myself as a teen and talk about general issues. I joined the mtv.com community. There I expressed my thoughts on everything, ranging from music to daily events that shape our world. There I had a chance to share my opinions and beliefs, as others posted their thoughts and perspectives on certain subjects. Online communities are rather congruent to offline ones. They are both appealing yet displeasing at the same time. An online community means different things to different people. For some, it conjures fuzzy, warm images of people chatting and helping each other. For others, it produces dark images of conspiracy, dissident and criminal behavior, sick perverts and invasion of privacy. At first, I was a little sketchy about joining a community. I wasn’t too fond of talking to strangers and posting my thoughts on certain subjects so hundreds of people can read them. I could be talking to someone, and everything they say could be a lie. I wouldn’t feel like I was having a real conversation, because someone can say he or she is something, when in reality he/she is a twisted and demented human being, who takes pleasure in harassing people online. Each day on the community was different. Some I enjoyed, and others made me despise the idea of ever having to return to the same site the next day. I was in no hurry to join a community. So on day one, I browsed the Internet, looking for a community I would feel comfortable in. After I f... ...find fascinating and form a close bond, and then there are those who you find disagreeable and find pleasure in â€Å"raping† you. Communicating via the Internet is no substitute for actual human interaction. But online communities do enable meaningful communication among people separated by distance and time. Many people in today’s society look to online communities for comfort. They visit it daily, and spend many hours talking to people they have never met in person. I have no interest in going back to my community. I didn’t feel the warm, fuzzy feeling of people chatting online. Some people can be rude and annoying, and that is something I just don’t want to deal with if I don’t have to. I enjoyed posting my thoughts on certain subjects on the message boards, but I didn’t enjoy reading some rude responses just because I didn’t agree with the person’s view.

Friends and Family

Friends are biggest value in people’s lives. I have many friends. Most of them are my neighbors, but also I have schoolmates. I can go out somewhere with them and feel comfortable. I know that friends of mine will help me anytime and anywhere. I can trust them. I have one best friend. I may pin his faith. Friendship between a friend of mine and me is firm and intense. He always helps me solve problems and treats me with respect. A friend of mine has never lied to me. It is better to say home truth that sweet lie. If I am upset, my best friend will jolly up me. He is caring, cheerful, trustworthy, outgoing and good-tempered. He is younger than I am. I think that age is not important for a friendship if you can come to an understanding and respect each other. I have friends among people of a different generation. I like younger mates because I can be child . Older people are serious and calm. They care about their studies or jobs. They have less free time. However, I like them because they can teach me something and share their experience. Older friends may help me to do my homework and explain me what I cannot understand. Friends are one of life treasures so that we have to treasure our friendships. It is not easy to make friends nowadays. The true friend should be honest and trustworthy. Without these characteristics, you cannot have a friendship with anyone. Person must be sociable, tolerant, conscientious, and good-tempered if he wants make friends. Furthermore, he must understand other person’s feelings and moods and always help him. If person wants not to lose old friends, he should care about them. He should call them and ask how they are. We should safe our relationships. If we break friendship, it will be hard to recover it. I suppose that friendship is a state when you feel important and you know that you can do something helpful or needful to your friend. Sometimes you see somebody for the first time and that is strange when you feel you are friends for ages. My ideal friend has to be himself. I don’t think, I should name any of his/her (later on: he) character features. It’s even doesn’t matter when he has something, what doesn’t exist in rules of ideal man – e. g. unpolitness. It’s better when the social mask is not worn and you can talk to your friend and be absolutely ensured that he is not lying and he will help not every time, but only those times, when he could. I believe that’s very important. I don’t agree also to the idea that friends, having in common only external personalities are bad ones. I don’t think that it’s good to have a friend for a life. After some years you feel kind of exhausted and the light of the friendship begins to go out. People with external similarities can also be very good friends and the ones only with internal sometimes even can’t talk – e. . when he thinks right the same way, i think, it’s not interesting for me to talk with him, because i know how he thinks and i want to know more different people and to hear different oppinions. So, I must disappoint you, but I needless to say, having some internal common points. You don’t have to have a friend (like the po em, we read, says) but having one makes your life, your steps through the life much more easier and funnier. Nowadays often debated theme is the choice between a family and friends. For me a family is more important than friends. There are some thoughts about this lemma. Firstly, I think that a family is more important than friends, because when you are born you fall into a family not into your friends’ circle. First people with whom you get acquainted after your birth are your faSecondly, when we are teenagers for us it looks like that our family members are our enemies. We try to run from our family to our friends, but if it happens a really big problem, we come back to our family, because family is our most immediate and precious people. In our hearts we know that if nobody helps us, we can always rely on our family. But if we look at the another side of the coin, we can see that sometimes there are such problems in a family that parents can’t take care of their own children. In such situation we can trust just for our friends help, because family can’t help us. Finally, I think that not just family members have to help us. Sometimes we must help our family. Maybe then we will be able to say that our choice is family. In conclusion, I can say that we should never forget our nearest realatives. We should never forget and abandon our family. mily members. With no-one else, but just with your family help, you get known the world. Friends and family are important in our lifes, but the question is – which, friends or family, are more important for us? I believe that family is more significant then friends. In the first place, we can always trust our family’s members. When we have a trouble and we need some help, who will help us first? Of course, our family’s members. In addition, family supports you materrialy. Everything what you are wering, all notebooks, pens and other things you need at school and not just here are bought by your parents ( If you are still child ). Who else if not they buy you all these thinkgs abd help you tu survive? On the other hand, some people think, that friends are more important for their lifes. However, most of them forgot that friends are with you just while everything is good. Unfrotunately, when something bad occurs to you and you need their help, most of them turn their backs. Finally, I believe that family is the biggest support in our lifes, that’s why they are more imposrtant.